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<td><i>Islamic mysticism, Tasawwuf, has come to be known as "Sufism" in
the west. We reproduce here an article from the </i>"Dictionary of Islam"
<i>by
T.P. Hughes, as additional material to supplement our ongoing critique
and discussion of various aspects of this inner, contemplative discipline
of Islam, which we maintain is based on no better authority than the Holy
Qur'an and the </i>Sunnah<i> of the Prophet Muhammad (p.b.u.h.) and the
practises of his noble Companions and their pious followers of subsequent
generations.</i>
<p><i>In order to retain the original flavour of this old essay, we have
tried not to tamper with its original style and language even though on
quite a few occasions it was hard to control our desire to make appropriate
changes or to paraphrase some of the material for the sake of clarity and
brevity. Our purpose in reproducing this article by an eminent Christian
missionary (India, 1888) is mainly to assist the non-Muslim, western, secular
man on the street, in an unbiased understanding of Islamic teachings. We
have used the grammatical (sic) to indicate, only at those undesirably
prominent occasions, where it is obvious to us that we are not in agreement
with the implications of the wording used by the author. - Editor</i>
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<p><b>"SUFI</b>, (The Persian form of the plural being <i>Sufiyan</i>).
A man of the people called <i>Sufiyah</i> who profess the mystic principle
of <i>Tasawwuf</i>. There is considerable discussion as to the origin of
this word. It is said to be derived (1) from the Arabic <i>Suf</i> , "wool,"
on account of the woollen dress worn by Eastern ascetics; (2) or from the
Arabic <i>Safu</i>, "purity," with reference to the effort to attain the
metaphysical purity (which is scarcely probable); (3) or from the Greek,
meaning "wisdom"; (4) or, according to the <i>Ghiyasu'l-Lughat</i>, it
is derived from the <i>Su fah</i>, the name of the tribe of Arabs who in
the "time of ignorance," separated themselves from the world, and engaged
themselves exclusively in the service of the Makkah Temple.
<p>It might at first sight appear almost an impossibility for mysticism
to engraft itself upon the legal system of the Qur'an, and the Ahadis,
with the detailed ritual and cold formality which are so strikingly exemplified
in Islam; but it would appear that from the very days of Muhammad, there
have been always those who, whilst they called themselves Muslims, set
aside the literal meaning of the words of Muhammad for a supposed mystic
or spiritual interpretation, and it is generally admitted by Sufis that
one of the great founders of their system, as found in Islam, was the adopted
son<i> (sic)</i> and son-in-law of the Prophet, 'Ali ibn Abi Talib. The
Sufis themselves admit that their religious system has always existed in
the world, prior to the mission of Muhammad, and the unprejudiced student
of their system will observe that <i>Tasawwuf</i>, or Sufism, is but a
Muslim adaptation of the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophers <i>(sic),</i>
and which also we find in the writings of old academics of Greece, and
Sir William Jones thought Plato learned from the sages of the East.
<p>The Sufis are divided into innumerable sects, which find expression
in the numerous religious orders of Darweshes or Faqirs; but although they
differ in name and in some of their customs, as dress, meditations and
recitations, they are all agreed in their principal tenets, particularly
those which inculcate the absolute necessity of blind submission to a <i>murshid</i>,
or inspired guide. It is generally admitted that, quite irrespective of
minor sects, the Sufis are divided into those who claim to be only the
<i>Ilhamiyah,</i>
or inspired of God, and those who assert that they are
<i>Ittihadiyah</i>,
or unionist with God <i>(sic)</i>.
<br>
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<center>
<p><b><font size=+2>I. The Doctrine of the Sufis</font></b></center>
<p><br>
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<p>The following is a succinct account of the doctrines of the Sufis: -
<p>1. God only exists. He in all things, and all things in Him.
<p>2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from Him, and are
not really distinct from Him.
<p>3. Religions are matters of indifference: <i>(sic)</i> they however
serve as leading to realities. Some for this purpose are more advantageous
than others, among which is al-Islam, of which Sufism is the true philosophy.
<p>4. There does not really exist any difference between good and evil
<i>(sic)</i>,
for all is reduced to Unity, and God is the real Author of the acts of
mankind.
<p>5. It is God who fixes the will of man: man therefore is not free [has
limited freedom] in his actions.
<p>6. The soul existed before the body, and is confined within the latter
as in a cage. Death, therefore, should be the object of the wishes of the
Sufi, for it is then that he returns to the bosom of Divinity.
<p>7. It is by this metempsychosis [an instance of transmigration of souls]
that souls which have not fulfilled their destination here below are purified
and become worthy of reunion with God.
<p>8. Without the grace of God, which the Sufis call <i>Fayazanu 'llah,</i>
or <i>Fazlu 'llah</i>, no one can attain to this spiritual union, but this,
they assert, can be obtained by fervently asking for it.
<p>9. The principal occupation of the Sufi, whilst in the body, is meditation
on the <i>wahdaniyah,</i> or Unity of God. The remembrance of God's names
(<i>zikr)</i>, and the progressive advancement in the <i>Tariqah</i>, or
journey of life, so as to attain unification with God."
<br>
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<center>
<p><b><font size=+2>II. The Sufi Journey</font></b></center>
<p><br>
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<p>Human life is likened to a journey (<i>safar),</i> and the seeker after
God to a traveller <i>(salik).</i>
<p>The great business of the traveller is to exert himself and strive to
attain that perfect knowledge <i>(ma'rifah)</i> of God which is diffused
through all things, for the Soul of man is an exile from its Creator, and
human existence is its period of banishment. The sole object of Sufism
is to lead the wandering soul onward, stage by stage, until it reaches
the desired goal - perfect union with the Divine Being.
<p>The natural state of every human being is humanity <i>(nasut)</i>, in
which state the disciple must observe the Law (Shariah); but as this is
the lowest form of spiritual existence, the performance of the journey
is enjoined upon every searcher after true knowledge.
<p>The various stages <i>(manazil)</i> are differently described by Sufi
writers, but amongst those of India (and, according to Malcolm, of Persia
also) the following is the usual journey: -
<p>The first stage, as we have already remarked, is humanity <i>(nasut)</i>,
in which the disciple must live according to the Law <i>(Shariah)</i>,
and observe all the rites, customs, and the nature of angels <i>(malakut)</i>,
for which there is the pathway of purity <i>(tariqah)</i>. The third is
the possession of power <i>(jubrut)</i> for which there is knowledge <i>(ma'rifah)</i>;
and the fourth is extinction <i>(fana)</i> (i.e. absorption into the Deity),
for which there is Truth <i>(haqiqah)</i>.
<p>The following more extended journey is marked out for the traveller
by a Sufi writer, 'Aziz ibn Muhammad Nafasi, in a book called <i>al-Maqsadu
'l-Aqsa</i>, or the "Remotest Aim," which has been rendered into English
by the lamented Professor Palmer <i>(Oriental Mysticism,</i> Cambridge,
1867): -
<p>When a man possessing the necessary requirements of fully-developed
reasoning powers turns to them for a resolution of his doubts and uncertainties
concerning the real nature of the Godhead, he is called a <i>talib,</i>
a searcher after God."
<p>If he manifest a further inclination to prosecute his inquiry according
to their system, he is called a <i>murid</i>, or "one who inclines."
<p>Placing himself then under the spiritual instruction of some eminent
leader of the sect, he is fairly started upon his journey and becomes a
<i>salik,</i>
or "traveller," whose whole business in life is devotion, to the end that
he may ultimately arrive at the knowledge of God.
<p>1. Here he is exhorted to serve God, as the first step towards a knowledge
of Him. This is the <i>first</i> stage of his journey, and is called <i>'ubudiyah</i>,
or "service."
<p>2. When in answer to his prayers the Divine influence or attraction
has developed his inclination into the love of God, he is said to have
reached the stage called <i>'Ishq</i> or "love."
<p>3. This Divine Love, expelling all worldly desires from his heart, leads
him to the next stage, which is <i>zuhd</i>, or "seclusion."
<p>4. Occupying himself henceforward with contemplations and investigations
of metaphysical theories concerning the nature, attributes, and works of
God, he reaches <i>ma'rifah</i>, or "knowledge."
<p>5. This assiduous contemplation of startling metaphysical theories is
exceedingly attractive to an oriental mind, and not infrequently produces
a state of mental excitement. Such ecstatic state is considered a sure
prognostication of direct illumination of the heart by God, and constitutes
the next stage, called <i>wajd</i>, or "ecstasy."
<p>6. During this stage he is supposed to receive a revelation [not the
same level of 'revelation' called <i>wahy</i> which is reserved only for
the Prophets - 'Inspiration' perhaps would be a more appropriate term in
this context.] of the true nature of the Godhead, and to have reached the
stage called <i>haqiqah</i>, or "truth".
<p>7. He then proceeds to the stage of <i>wasl</i>, or "union with God."
<p>8. Further than this he cannot go, but pursues his habit of self-denial
and contemplation until his death, which is looked upon as <i>fana</i>,
"total absorption into the Deity, extinction." To develop this quasi "spiritual
life" the Sufi leaders have invented various forms of devotion called zikr,
or "recitations." These eccentric exercises have generally attracted the
notice of travellers in the East, and have been described by Lane, Vambery,
Burton, and other Orientalists."
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<p><b><font size=+2>III. The Perfect Man in Sufi Spiritualism</font></b></center>
<p><br>
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<p>"The late Professor E.H. Palmer of Cambridge has in his <i>Oriental
Mysticism,</i> compiled from native sources, given a very correct idea
of what may be considered the spiritual side of Muhammadanism, as expressed
in the teaching of Muslim Sufis.
<p>The perfect man is he who has fully comprehended the Law, the Doctrine,
and the Truth; or, in other words, he who is endued with four things in
perfection, viz. 1. Good words; 2. Good deeds; 3. Good principles; 4. The
sciences. It is the business of the Traveller to provide himself with these
things in perfection, and by so doing he will provide himself with perfection.
<p>"The Perfect Man has had various other names assigned to him, all equally
applicable, vis. Elder, Leader, Guide, Inspired Teacher, Wise, Virtuous,
Perfect, Perfecter, Beacon and Mirror of the world, Powerful Antidote,
Mighty Elixir, <i>Isa</i> (Jesus) the Raiser of the Dead, <i>Khizar</i>
the Discoverer of the Water of Life, and <i>Solomon</i> who knew the language
of Birds.
<p>"The Universe has been likened to a single person, of whom the Perfect
Man is the Soul; and again, to a tree, of which mankind is the fruit, and
the Perfect Man the pith and essence. Nothing is hidden from the Perfect
Man; for after arriving at the knowledge of God, he has attained to that
of the nature and properties of material objects, and can henceforth find
no better employment than acting mercifully towards mankind. Now there
is no mercy better than to devote oneself to the perfection and improvement
of others, both by precept and example. Thus the Prophet is called in the
Qur'an '<i>a mercy to the Universe</i>.' [Qur'an 21: 107]. But with all
his perfection the Perfect Man cannot compass his desires, but passes his
life in consistent and unavoidable self-denial: he is perfect in knowledge
and principle, but imperfect in faculty and power.
<p>"There have indeed been Perfect Men possessed of power; such power as
that which resides in kings and rulers; yet a careful consideration of
the poor extent of man's capacities will show that his weakness is preferable
to his power, his want of faculty preferable to his possession of it. Prophets
and saints, kings and sultans, have desired many things, and failed to
obtain them; they have wished to avoid many things, and have had them forced
upon them. Mankind is made up of the Perfect and the Imperfect, of the
Wise and the Foolish, of Kings and Subjects, but all are alike weak and
helpless, all pass their lives in a manner contrary to their desires; this
the Perfect man recognizes and acts upon, and, knowing that nothing is
better for man than renunciation, forsakes all and becomes free and at
leisure. As before he renounced wealth and dignity, so now he foregoes
eldership and teachership, esteeming freedom and rest above everything;
the fact is, that though the motive alleged for education and care of others
is a feeling of compassion and a regard for discipline, yet the real instigation
is the love of dignity; as the Prophet says, 'The last thing that is removed
from the chiefs of the righteous is love of dignity.' I have said that
the Perfect Man should be endued with four things in perfection; now the
Perfectly Free Man should have four additional characteristics, viz. renunciation,
retirement, contentment, and leisure. He who has the first four is virtuous,
but not free; he who has the whole eight is perfect, liberal, virtuous,
and free. Furthermore, there are two grades of the Perfectly Free - those
who have renounced wealth and dignity only, and those who have further
renounced eldership and teachership, thus becoming free and at leisure.
These again are subdivided into two classes; those who, after renunciation,
retirement and contentment, make choice of obscurity, and those who after
renunciation, make choice of submission, contemplation, and resignation;
but the object of both is the same. Some writers assert that freedom and
leisure consists in the former course, while others maintain that it is
only to be found in the latter.
<p>"Those who make choice of obscurity are actuated by the knowledge that
annoyance and distraction of thought are the invariable concomitants of
society; they therefore avoid receiving visits and presents, and fear them
as they would venomous beasts. The other class, who adopt submission, resignation
and contemplation, do so because they perceive that mankind for the most
part are ignorant of what is good for them, being dissatisfied with what
is beneficial, and delighted with circumstances that are harmful to them;
as the Qur'an says, '<i>Perchance ye may dislike what is good for you,
and like what is hurtful to you.'</i> [Qur'an 2: 213] For this reason they
retire from society equally with the other class, caring little what the
world may think of them.
<p>"Fellowship has many qualities and effects both of good and evil. The
fellowship of the wise is the only thing that can conduct the Traveller
safely to the Goal; therefore all the submission, earnestness and discipline
that have been hitherto inculcated are merely in order to render him worthy
of such fellowship. Provided he have the capacity, a single day, nay, a
single hour, in the society of the wise, tends more to his improvement
than years of self-discipline without it. '<i>Verily one day with thy Lord
is better than a thousand years</i>.' [Qur'an 22:46].
<p>"It is, however, possible to frequent the society of the wise without
receiving any benefit therefrom, but this must proceed either from want
of capacity or want of will. In order then to avoid such a result, the
Sufis have laid down the following rules for the conduct of the disciple
when in the presence of his teachers.
<p>"Hear, attend, but speak little.
<p>"Never answer a question not addressed to you; but if asked, answer
promptly and concisely, never feeling ashamed to say, 'I know not.'
<p>"Do not dispute for disputation's sake.
<p>"Never seek the highest place, nor even accept it if it be offered to
you.
<p>"Do not be over-ceremonious, for this will compel your elders to act
in the same manner towards you, and give them needless annoyance.
<p>"Observe in all cases the etiquette appropriate to the time, place and
persons present.
<p>"In indifferent matters, that is, matters involving no breach of duty
by their omission or commission, conform to the practice and wishes of
those with whom you are associating.
<p>"Do not make a practice of anything which is not either a duty or calculated
to increase the comfort of your associates; otherwise it will become an
idol to you; and it is incumbent on every one to break his idols and renounce
his habits."
<center>
<p><b><font size=+2>IV. Renunciation</font></b></center>
<p><br>
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<p>"This leads us to the subject of Renunciation, which is of two kinds,
external and internal. The former is the renunciation of worldly wealth;
the latter, the renunciation of worldly desires. Everything that hinders
or veils the Traveller's path must be renounced, whether it relate to this
world or the next. Wealth and dignity are great hindrances; but too much
praying and fasting [of a non-obligatory kind] are often hindrances too.
The one is a shroud of darkness, the other a veil of light. The Traveller
must renounce idolatry, if he desire to reach the Goal, and everything
that bars his progress is an idol. All men have some idol which they worship;
with one it is wealth and dignity, with another overmuch prayer and fasting.
If a man sit always upon his prayer-carpet, his prayer-carpet becomes his
idol. And so on with a great number of instances.
<p>Renunciation must not be performed without the advice and permission
of an elder. It should be the renunciation of trifles, not of necessaries,
such as food, clothing, and dwelling-place, which are indispensable to
man; for without them he would be obliged to rely on the aid of others,
and this would beget avarice, which is 'the mother of vice.' The renunciation
of necessaries produces as corrupting an influence upon the mind as the
possession of too much wealth. The greatest of blessings is to have a sufficiency,
but to over-step this limit is to gain nought but additional trouble.
<p>"Renunciation is the practice of those who know God, and the characteristic
mark of the wise. Every individual fancies that he alone possesses this
knowledge, but knowledge is an attribute of the mind, and there is no approach
from unaided sense to the attributes of the mind, by which we can discover
who is, or who is not, possessed of this knowledge. Qualities however,
are the sources of action; therefore a man's practice is an infallible
indication of the qualities he possesses; if, for instance, a man asserts
that he is a baker, a carpenter, or a blacksmith, we can judge at once
if he possesses skill in these crafts by the perfection of his handiwork.
In a word, theory is internal, and practice external, the presence of the
practice, therefore, is a proof that the theory too is there.
<p>"Renunciation is necessary to the real confession of faith; for the
formula 'There is no God bu God,' involves two things, negation and proof.
Negation is the renunciation of other Gods, and proof is the knowledge
of God. Wealth and dignity have led many from the right path, they are
the gods the people worship; if then you see that one has renounced these,
you may be sure that he has expelled the love of this world from his heart,
and completed the negation; and whosoever has attained to the knowledge
of God has completed the proofs. This is really confessing that 'there
is no God but God'; and he who has not attained to the knowledge of God,
has never really repeated the confession of faith. Early prejudices are
a great stumbling-block to many people; for the first principles of Monotheism
are contained in the words of the Hadis: 'Everyone is born with a disposition
[for the true faith], but his parents make him a Jew, a Christian, or a
Magian.' The Unitarian also say, that the real confession of faith consists
in negation and proof; but they explain negation by renunciation of self,
and proof by acknowledgment of God.
<p>"Thus, according to the Sufis, confession of faith; prayer and fasting
contain two distinct features, namely, form and truth; the former being
entirely inefficacious without the latter. Renunciation and the knowledge
of God are like a tree; the knowledge of God is the root, renunciation
the branches, and all good principles and qualities are the fruit. To sum
up, the lesson to be learnt is that in repeating the formula, the Traveller
must acknowledge in his heart that God only always was, God only always
will be. This world and the next, nay, the very existence of the Traveller,
may vanish, but God alone remains. This is the true confession of faith;
and although the Traveller before was blind, the moment he is assured of
this his eyes are opened, and he seeth."
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<p><b><font size=+2>V. Helps to Devotion</font></b></center>
<p><br>
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<p>"The Sufis hold that there are three aids necessary to conduct the Traveller
on his path.
<p>"1. Attraction <i>(injizab</i>); 2. Devotion <i>(ibadah)</i>; 3. Elevation
<i>('uruj).</i>
<p>"Attraction is the act of God, who draws man towards Himself. Man sets
his face towards this world, and is entangled in the love of wealth and
dignity, until the grace of God steps in and turns his heart towards God.
The tendency proceeding from God is called Attraction; that which proceeds
form man is call Inclination, Desire and Love. As the inclination increases,
its name changes, and it causes the Traveller to renounce everything else
becoming a Kiblah, to set his face towards God; when it has become his
Kiblah, and made him forget everything but God, it is developed into Love.
<p>"Most men when they have attained this stage are content to pass their
lives therein, and leave the world without making further progress. Such
a person the Sufis call Attracted <i>(majzub)</i>.
<p>"Others, however, proceed from this to self-examination, and pass the
rest of their lives in devotion. They are then called Devoutly Attracted
<i>(majzub-i-Salik</i>).
If devotion he first practised, and the attraction of God then step in,
such a person is called an Attracted Devotee <i>(Salik-i-majzub)</i>. If
he practise and complete devotion, but is not influenced by the attraction
of God, he is called a Devotee <i>(Salik)</i>.
<p>"Sheikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi , in his work entitled '<i>Awarif al
Ma'arif, </i>says that an elder or teacher should be selected from the
second class alone; for although many may be estimable and righteous, it
is but few who are fit for such offices, or for the education of disciples.
<p>"Devotion is the prosecution of the journey, and that in two ways, to
God and in God. The first, the Sufis say, has a limit; the second is boundless;
the journey to God is completed when the Traveller has attained to the
knowledge of God; and then commences the journey in God, which has for
its object, the knowledge of the Nature and Attributes of God, a task which
they confess is not to be accomplished in so short a space as the lifetime
of man.
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The knowledge wisest men have shared
of Thy great power and Thee</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Is Less, when with Thyself compared,
than one drop in a sea.</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The Unitarians maintain that the journey
to God is completed when the Traveller has acknowledged that there is no
existence save that of God; the journey in God they explain to be a subsequent
inquiry into the mysteries of nature.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The term Elevation of ascent <i>('uruj)</i>
is almost synonymous with Progress."</font>
<br>
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<p><b><font face="Times New Roman"><font size=+2>VI. The Intellectual and
Spiritual Development of Man</font></font></b></center>
<p><br>
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<p><font face="Times New Roman">"Every animal possesses a vegetative spirit,
a living spirit, and an instinctive spirit; but man has an additional inheritance,
namely the Spirit of Humanity. Now this was breathed by God into man directly
from Himself, and is therefore of the same character as the Primal Element:
'<i>And when I have fashioned him and breathed My spirit into him.</i>'
[Qur'an 15:29]. The Sufis do not interpret this of the Life, but of the
Spirit of Humanity, and say that it is frequently not attained until a
late period of life, thirty or even eighty years. Before man can receive
this Spirit of Humanity, he must be furnished with capacity, which is only
to be acquired by purifying oneself from all evil and immoral qualities
and dispositions, and adorning oneself with the opposite ones. Sheikh Muhiy-uddin
ibn al 'Arabi, in his 'Investigations'[<i>Fusus</i>], says that the words
'<i>and when I have fashioned him</i>,' refer to this preparation, and
the rest of the sentence, '<i>and breathed My spirit into him</i>,' refers
to the accession of the Spirit of Humanity.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"Two conditions are therefore imposed upon
the Traveller; first, to attain Humanity, second, to acquire capacity.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"There are three developments of character
that must be suppressed before man can attain to Humanity; the animal,
the brutal [cruel, like a brute/beast] and the fiendish [devilish]. He
who only eats and sleeps and gives way to lust, is mere animal; if besides
these he give way to anger and cruelty, he is brutal; and if in addition
to all these he is crafty, lying, and deceitful, he is fiendish.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"If the Traveller is moderate in his food,
rest, and desires, and strives to attain a knowledge of himself and of
God, then is the time for acquiring capacity by freeing himself from all
that is evil and base, and adorning himself with the opposite qualities;
after that by prayer he may obtain the Spirit of Humanity. Some one has
truly said that there is none of the perfection, essence, or immortality
of man, save only among such as are 'created with a godly disposition.'
When the Traveller has once been revivified by the Spirit of Humanity,
he becomes immortal, and inherits everlasting life. This is why it has
been said that 'man has a beginning but no end.'</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"If when he has attained this Spirit of
Humanity, he is earnest, and does not waste his life in trifling, he soon
arrives at the Divine Light itself. For 'God guideth whom He pleaseth unto
His Light.' The attainment of this light is the completion of Man's upward
progress, but no one can attain to it but those who are pure in spirit
and in their lives. Mohammed asserted that he himself had attained it,
'To the light have I reached and in the light I live;' now this light is
the Nature of God; wherefore he said, 'who seeth me seeth God.' [<i>Nur-i-Muhammad</i>]</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The germ that contains the Primal Element
of Man is the lowest of the low, and the Divine Light is the highest of
the high; it is between these extremes that the stages of man's upward
or downward progress lie. '<i>We have created man in the fairest of proportions,
and then have thrown him back to be the lowest of the low, save only such
as believe and act with righteousness; and verily those shall have their
reward.</i> [Qur'an 95:4]. This reward is said by the Sufis to be defined
by the word <i>ajrat [ujrat]</i>, 'reward,' itself. This word contains
three radical letters [in Arabic]" <i>Alif,</i> <i>Jeem</i> and <i>Ray</i>:
the <i>Alif</i> stands for <i>I'adah</i> = 'return', the <i>Jeem</i> for
<i>Jannah
</i>=
'Paradise,' and the <i>Ray</i> for <i>Ruyah</i>, that is 'those who have
handed down the faith.' Their acting righteously is their return to the
Nature of God, for when they have finished their upward progress and reached
this they are in Paradise, and in the presence of their God. He therefore
is a man, in the true sense of the word, who being sent down upon earth
strives upward towards Heaven. These aspirations are indispensable to man;
he might by the Almighty Power of God exist without all beside, even had
the Heavens and the elements themselves never been; but these things are
the aim and want of all.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"It has been said that the Primal Element
or constructive spirit as well as the Spirit of Humanity proceed direct
from God. They are therefore identical, and are both included by the Sufis
in the one term Concomitant Spirit. Now this Spirit, although distinct
and individual, comprehends and governs the entire Universe. The Simple
Natures are its administrators and exponents; of these Seven Sires beget,
and the Four Mothers conceive from the incarnation of this spirit in them,
and their offspring is the triple kingdom, Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal.
And so it is with the Lesser World of Man.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"Now this Spirit hath two functions, external
and internal; the external is revealed in the material generation just
alluded to, the internal abides in the heart of man. Whosoever purifies
his heart from worldly impressions and desires, reveals this internal function
of the Spirit within him, and illumines and revivifies his soul.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"Thus the Spirit at once comprehends the
Universe and dwells in the heart of man." </font>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<center>
<p><b><font face="Times New Roman"><font size=+2>VII. Of the Upward Progress
or Ascent of Man</font></font></b></center>
<p><br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"When Man has become assured of the truth
of Revelation, he has reached the stage of Belief, and has the name of
<i>Mumin</i>
'Believer.' When he further acts in obedience to the will of God, and apportions
the night and day for earnest prayer, he has reached the stage of worship,
and is called an <i>'A'bid</i> or 'Worshipper.' When he has expelled the
love of this world from his heart, and occupies himself with the contemplation
of the mighty Whole, he reaches the next stage, and becomes a <i>Zuhid</i>,
or 'Recluse.' When in addition to all this he knows God, and subsequently
learns the mysteries of nature, he reaches the stage of Acquaintance, and
is called <i>'Arif, </i>'One who knows.' The next stage is that in which
he attains to the love of God, and is called a <i>Wali</i> or 'Saint'.
When he is moreover gifted with inspiration and the power of working miracles,
he becomes a <i>Nabi</i>, 'Prophet'; and when entrusted next with the delivery
of God's own message, he is called an 'Apostle,' <i>Rasul</i>. When he
is appointed to abrogate a previous dispensation and preach a new one,
he is called <i>'Ulu'l Azm,</i> 'One who has a mission.' When this mission
is final, he has arrived at the stage called <i>Khatm</i>, or 'the Seal.'
This is the Upward Progress of Man. The first stage is the 'Believer,'
the last the 'Seal'.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"After separation from the body, the soul
of Man returns to that Heaven which corresponds to the stage which he has
attained; thus the Believer at last dwells in the first or lowest Heaven,
the Seal in the Heaven of Heavens; for it will be noticed that the stages
of upward progress correspond to the number of degrees in the Heavenly
Spheres, namely, seven inferior and two superior.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The metaphysicians say that these stages
and degrees do not in reality exist, but that the Heavenly Intelligence
which corresponds to the degree of intelligence attained by Man, attracts
and absorbs his soul into itself after separation from the body. Thus every
one who has attained intelligence corresponding to that of the highest
sphere, his soul returns thereto; and he who has attained intelligence
corresponding to the lowest sphere, his soul in like manner returns to
that; those who have not attained intelligence corresponding to any of
those will be placed in Hell, which is situate below the lowest sphere.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"As each of the Heavenly Spheres is furnished
with knowledge and purity in proportion to its position, the rank of Man's
soul in the future state will, according to this last account, be in proportion
to his degree of knowledge and purity of life while upon the earth.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The Unitarians say that man's Upward Progress
has no end, for if he strive for a thousand years, each day will teach
him something that he knew not before, inasmuch as the knowledge of God
has no limit. So Mohammed says, "He who progresses daily is yet of feeble
mind.'</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The religious account says that the soul
of every man returns to an individual place after separation from the body.
This the metaphysicians deny; for how, say they, can the soul of a man
return to a certain place when it has not originally come from a certain
place? The soul of man is the Primal Spirit, and if a thousand persons
live, it is the same spirit that animates them all; and in like manner,
if a thousand die, the same spirit returns to itself, and is not lessened
or diminished. The sun is the lord of the sensible world, and exponent
of the attributes of the Primal Spirt. The Primal Spirit is the lord of
the invisible world and the exponent of the Nature of God.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"When the heart of man has been revivified
and illumined by the Primal Spirit, he has arrived at Intelligence; for
Intelligence is a light in the heart, distinguishing between truth and
vanity. Until he has been so revivified and illumined, it is impossible
for him to attain to intelligence at all. But having attained to intelligence,
then, and not till then, is the time for attainment of knowledge for becoming
Wise. Intelligence is a Primal Element, and knowledge the attribute thereof.
When from knowledge he has successively proceeded to the attainment of
the Divine Light, and acquaintance with the mysteries of nature, his last
step will be Perfection, with which his Upward Progress concludes.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"But dive he ever so deeply into the treasury
of mysteries and knowledge, unless he examine himself and confess that
after all he knows naught, all that he has acquired will slip through his
hands, and leave him far poorer than before. His treasure of today should
as much exceed the treasure of yesterday as an ocean exceeds a drop; but
this can never be, unless he, leaving all else for contemplation and self-examination,
have freedom and leisure to learn how poor he really is, and how much he
needs the saving help of God.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"One class of Unitarians explain the Upward
Progress of Man thus. They say that every atom of existent beings is filled
with light;</font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Arise and look around, for every atom
that has birth</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Shines forth a lustrous beacon to
illumine all the earth;</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">but that man walks abroad in darkness,
blinded by the lusts of life, and laments the want of light that would,
were he but aware of it, involve him in the glorious sheen of brightest
day:</font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>" 'Twere well to catch the odours that
about our senses play,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>For all the world is full of blasts
to bear the sweets away.</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">What they mean is this, that all existent
beings are compounded of two things, darkness and light, which are indistinguishably
blended together. The light belongs to the Invisible, and darkness to the
Sensible world; but the two are intimately connected, and the former exercises
a paramount influence upon the latter. The object of man, according to
them is to separate the light from the darkness, that its nature and attributes
may be understood, and in this consists his Upward Progress.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"Although the light and the darkness can
never be entirely separated, for the one is as it were the veil of the
other, the light can be made to prevail, so that its attributes may become
manifest.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"Now it is possible to separate thus far
the light from the darkness in certain cases; in the bodies of men and
animals, for instance, there are certain organs always at work, whose sole
object is this separation. Thus, when food is introduced into the stomach,
the liver receives the cream and essence of it and transmits it to the
heart; the heart, in like manner, extracts the essence of this, which is
the life, and transmits it to the brain; lastly, the brain extracts the
essence of this, and transforms it into the elixir or life, the real light
of all.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The elixir evolved by the brain is the
instinctive spirit, and, is, as it were, a lamp in a lantern; but it gives
forth after all but a flickering and cloudy light, and man's object should
therefore be to strengthen and purity it by Renunciation and Contemplation,
until it give forth the true light which is the Spirit of Humanity. When
man has attained to this, he necessarily becomes free from all that is
evil, and is adorned instead with every good and noble quality.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The body of man is like a lantern, the
Vegetative Spirit is the lamp, the Animal Spirit is the wick, the Instinctive
Spirit the oil, and the Spirit of Humanity the fire that kindles all. '<i>Verily
its oil would almost shine even though no fire kindled it.'</i> [Qur'an
24:35] In other words, the Instinctive Spirit should feed and supply the
Spirit of Humanity, as the oil feeds and supplies the flame in a lamp.
The Traveller must aim at completing this lamp, so that his heart may be
illumined, and he may see things as they really are. When the Spirit of
Humanity a '<i>light upon light'</i> [Qur'an 24:35] has kindled the Instinctive
Spirit, God '<i>guideth whom he pleaseth to His own light.</i>' (idem),
that is to the divine light of His own nature, reaching which the Traveller's
Upward Progress is complete; for <i>'from Him they spring, and unto Him
return</i>'"</font>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<center>
<p><b><font face="Times New Roman"><font size=+2>VIII. Sufism adapted to
Muhammadanism</font></font></b></center>
<p><br>
<br>
<br>
<br>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"A clear and intelligible exposition of
the
principles of Sufism, or Oriental Spiritualism, is given by Muhammad al-Misri,
a Sufi of the Ilhamiyah school of thought, in the following categorical
form (translated by Mr. J.P. Brown, in the <i>Journal of the American Oriental
Society). </i>It represents more particularly the way in which this form
of mysticism is adapted to the stern and dogmatic teaching <i>(sic)</i>
of Islam.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Question - </i>What is the beginning
of at-Tasawwuf?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Answer - Iman</i>, or faith, of which
there are six pillars, namely, (1) Belief in God, (2) in His Angels, (3)
in His Books, (4) and in His Prophets, (5) in the last Day, and (6) in
His decree of good and evil.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> What is the result of at-Tasawwuf?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> It is not only the reciting
with the tongue these pillars of faith, but also establishing them in the
heart. This was the reply made by the Murshid Junaiyd 'l-Baghdadi, in answer
to the same question.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> What is the distinction between
a Sufi and an ordinary person?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>The knowledge of an ordinary
person is but <i>Imanu-i Taqlidi</i>, or "a counterfeit faith," whereas
that of the Sufi is <i>Iman-i-Tahqiqi,</i> or "true faith."</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> What do you mean by counterfeit
faith?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>It is that which an ordinary
person has derived from his forefathers, or from the teachers and preachers
of his own day, without knowing why it is essential that a man should believe
in these six articles for his soul's salvation. For example, a person may
be walking in the public streets and find a precious jewel which, perhaps
kings had sought for in vain, and rulers who had conquered the whole world
had sought for and yet had not found. But in this precious jewel he has
found that which is more effulgent than the sun, when it is so bright that
it obscures the lesser light of the moon; or even he has found an alchemy
which can convert copper into gold. And yet, perhaps, the finder knows
not the value of the precious jewel, but thinks it a counterfeit jewel,
and one which he would give away even for a drink of water if he were thirsty.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> What is the establishment of
faith?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> The establishment of faith consists
in a search being made for the true origin of each of these six pillars
of faith, until the enquirer arrives at <i>al-Haqiqah</i> "the Truth."
Many persons pursue the journey for ten, or twenty, or thirty, or even
forty years, and wandering away from the true path, enter upon the path
of error, and hence there are known to be seventy-three ways, only one
of which is the way of Salvation. At last, by a perfect subjection to the
teaching of the Murshid, or guide, they find out the value of the lost
jewel which they have found, and their faith becomes manifest, and you
might say that, with the light of the lamp, they have reached the sun.
They then find out that the <i>Tariqah</i>, or journey of the Sufi, is
consistent with the <i>Shari'ah</i> or law of Islam.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> In matters of faith and worship,
to what sect are the Sufis attached?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>(To this reply the author says,
speaking, of course, of his own people, that they are chiefly of the Sunni
sect. But he does not notice that mystic doctrines are more prevalent amongst
the Shi'ahs.) </font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> When Bayazid al-Bistami was
asked of what sect he was, he replied, "I am of the sect of Allah." What
did he mean?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>The sects of Allah are the four
orthodox sects of Islam. (Here our author departs from true Sufi teaching.)</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Most of the Sufis, in their
poems, use certain words which we hear and understand as showing that they
were of the Metempsychosians. They say, "I am sometimes Lot, sometimes
a vegetable, sometimes an animal, at other times a man." What does this
mean?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>Brother, the prophet has said:
"My people, in the future life, will rise up in companies" - that is, some
as monkeys, others as hogs, or in other forms - as is written in a verse
of the Qur'an, Surah [78:18]: "<i>Ye shall come in troops,"</i> which has
been commented on by al-Baizawi, who cites a tradition to the effect that,
at the resurrection, men will rise up in the form of those animals whose
chief characteristics resemble their own ruling passions in life; the greedy,
avaricious man as a hog; the angry, passionate man as a camel; the tale-bearer
or mischief-maker as a monkey. For though these men, while in this life,
bore the human form externally, they were internally nothing different
from the animals whose characters are in common with their own. The resemblance
is not manifest during the life, but becomes so in the other existence,
after the resurrection. Let us avoid such traits; repentance before death
will free us from these evils. The Prophet said with regard to this: "Sleep
is the brother of death. The dying man sees himself in his true character,
and so knows whether or not he is, by repentance, freed from his ruling
passion of life. In like manner, he will see himself during his slumbers,
still following in the path of his passions." For instance, the money-calculator,
in sleep, sees himself engaged in his all-absorbing occupation; and this
fact is a warning from God not to allow himself to be absorbed in any animal
passion or degrading occupation. It is only by prayerful repentance that
anyone can hope to see himself, in his sleep, delivered from his ruling
carnal passion, and restored to his proper human, intellectual form. If
in your slumbers you see a monkey, consider it as a warning to abandon
or abstain from the passion of mischief; if a hog, cease to seize upon
the goods of others; and so on. Go and give yourself up to an upright <i>Murshid,
</i>or
spiritual guide, who will, through his prayers, show you in your slumbers
the evil parts of your character, until one by one they have passed away,
and have been replaced by good ones - all through the power of the name
of God, whom he will instruct you to invoke (<i>zikr</i>); at length you
will only see in your slumbers the forms of holy and pious men, in testimony
of that degree of piety to which you will have attained. This is what is
meant by that expression of certain poets, referring to one's condition
previous to the act of repentance, when the writer says, "I am sometimes
an animal, sometimes a vegetable, sometimes a man"; and the same may be
said by the Sufis, in application to themselves, as of any other part of
creation, for man is called the <i>akhiru 'l-maujudat</i> or "the climax
of beings': for in him are comprised all the characteristics of creation.
Many mystical books have been written on this subject, all showing that
man is the larger part, and the world the smaller part, of God's creation.
The human frame is said to comprise all the other parts of creation; and
the heart of man is supposed to be even more comprehensive than the rainbow,
because, when the eyes are closed, the mental capacity can take in the
whole of a vast city; though not seen by the eyes, it is seen by the capacious
nature of the mind. Among such books is the <i>Hauzu 'l-Hayat</i> or the
"Well of Life," which says that if a man closes his eyes, ears, and nostrils,
he cannot take cold; that the right nostril is called the sun and the left
the moon; that from the former he breathes heat, from the latter cold air.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Explain the distinctive opinions
of the Sufis in <i>at-Tanasukh</i>, or the Transmigration of Souls.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> O Brother! Our teaching regarding
<i>al-Barzakh</i>
[Qur'an 23:102] has nothing whatever to do with <i>at-Tanasukh</i>. Of
all the erring sects in the world, those who believe in Metempsychosis,
or Transmigration of Souls, is the very worst.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q - </i>The Sufis regard certain things
as lawful which are forbidden. For instance they enjoin the use of wine,
wine-shops, the wine-cup, sweethearts; they speak of the curls of their
mistresses, and the moles on their faces, cheeks, etc, and compare the
furrows on their brows to verses of the Qur'an. What does this mean?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>The Sufis often exchange the
external features of all things for the internal, the corporeal for the
spiritual, and thus give an imaginary signification to outward forms. They
behold objects of a precious nature in their natural character and for
this reason the greater part of their words have a spiritual and figurative
meaning. For instance, when, like Hafiz, they mention wine, they mean a
knowledge of God, which figuratively considered, is the love of God. Wine,
viewed figuratively, is also love: love and affection are here the same
thing. The wine shop, with them, means the <i>murhidu 'l kamil,</i> or
spiritual director, for his heart is said to be the depository of the love
of God; the wine-cup is the <i>Talqin</i>, or the pronunciation of the
name of God in a declaration of faith, as : "There is no God but Allah!"
or it signifies the words which flow from the <i>Murshid's</i> mouth respecting
divine knowledge, and which, when heard by the <i>Salik,</i> or "one who
pursues the true path," intoxicates his soul, and divests his heart of
passions, giving him pure spiritual delights. The sweetheart means the
excellent preceptor, because, when anyone sees his beloved, he admires
her perfect proportions, with a heart full of love; the <i>Salik</i> beholds
the secret knowledge of God which fills the heart of his spiritual Preceptor,
or <i>Murshid</i>, and through it receives a similar inspiration, and acquires
a full perception of all that he possesses, just as the pupil learns from
his master. As the lover delights in the presence of his sweetheart, so
the <i>Salik</i> rejoices in the company of his beloved <i>Murshid,</i>
or preceptor. The sweetheart, is the object of a worldly affection, but
the preceptor of a spiritual attachment. The curls or ringlets of the beloved
are the grateful praises of the preceptor, tending to bind the affections
of the disciple; the moles on her face signify that when the pupil, at
times, beholds the total absence of all worldly wants on the part of the
preceptor, he also abandons all the desires of both worlds - he perhaps
even goes so far as to desire nothing else in life than his preceptor;
the furrows on the brow of the beloved one, which they compare to verses
of the Qur'an, mean the light of the heart of the <i>Murshid</i>; they
are compared to verses of the Qur'an, because the attributes of God, in
accordance with the injunction of the Prophet: "Be ye endued with divine
qualities,' are possessed by the <i>Murshid.</i></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> The <i>Murshids</i> and their
disciples often say: "We see God." Is it possible for anyone to see God?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> It is not possible. What they
mean by this assertion is that they know God, that they see His power;
for it is forbidden to mortal eyes to behold Him, as is declared in the
Qur'an [6:103] <i>"No sight reaches Him; He reaches the sight - the subtle,
the knowing."</i> The Prophet commanded us to "adore God, as thou wouldst
didst thou see Him; for, if thou dost not see Him, He sees thee." This
permission to adore Him is a divine favour, and they say that they are
God's servants by divine favour. 'Ali said: "Should the veil fall from
my eyes, how would God visit me in truth?" This saying proves that no one
really sees God, and that even the sainted 'Ali never saw Him.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Can it possibly be erroneous
to say that, by seeing the traces of anyone he may be beheld?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>One may certainly be thus seen.
When any person sees the brightness of the sun, he may safely say that
he has seen it. There is another example, namely: Should you hold a mirror
in your hand, you see a figure in it, and you may therefore say that you
see your own face, which is really an impossibility; for no one has ever
seen his own face, and you have asserted what is not strictly correct.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Since everyone sees the traces
of God, as everyone is able to do, how is it that the Sufis declare that
they only see Him?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> Those who make this statement
do not know what they see, for they have never really seen Him. A person
who has eaten of a sweet and savoury dish given to him but of which he
knows not the name, seeks for it again with a longing desire after it,
and thus wanders about in search of what has given him so much delight,
even though he be ignorant of what it really was. So are those who seek
after God, without knowing Him, or what He is.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q - </i>Some Sufis declare: "We are
neither afraid of Hell, nor do we desire Heaven" - a saying which must
be blasphemous. How is this?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A - </i>They do not really mean that
they do not fear Hell, and that they do not wish for Heaven. If they really
meant this, it would be blasphemous. Their meaning is not as they express
themselves; probably they wish to say "O Lord, Thou who createdst us and
madest us what we are, Thou hast not made us because we assist Thy workings.
We are in duty bound to serve Thee all the more devotedly, wholly in obedience
to They holy will. We have no bargaining with Thee, and we do not adore
Thee with the view of gaining thereby either Heaven or Hell!" As it is
written, in the Qur'an, [9:112] : "<i>Verily, God hath bought of the believers
their persons and their wealthy, for the Paradise they are to have,"</i>
which means that His bounty has no bounds, His mercy no end; and thus it
is that He benefits His faithful servants. They would say: "Thou hast no
bargaining with anyone; our devotion is from the sincerity of our hearts,
and is for love of Thee only. Were there no Heaven, nor any Hell, it would
still be our duty to adore thee. To Thee belongs the perfect right to put
us either in Heaven or in Hell, and may Thy commands be executed agreeable
to Thy blessed Will: if Thou puttest us in Heaven, it is through Thine
excellence, not on account of our devotion; if Thou puttest us in Hell,
it is from out of Thy great justice, and not from any arbitrary decision
on Thy part; so be it for ever and for ever!" This is the true meaning
of the Sufis when they say they do no desire Heaven or fear Hell.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Thou saidst that there is no
conflict between the <i>Shari'ah,</i> "law," and the <i>Haqiqah</i>, "truth,"
and nothing in the latter inconsistent with the former; and yet these two
are distinguished from one another by "a something" which the <i>Ahlu l'Haqiqah,</i>
"believers in the truth," conceal. Were there nothing conflicting, why
should it be thus hidden?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> If it be concealed, it is not
because there is a contrariety to the law, but only because the thing hidden
is contrary to the human mind; its definition is subtle, and not understood
by everyone, for which reason the Prophet said: "Speak to men according
to their mental capacities, for if you speak all things to all men, some
cannot understand you, and so fall into error." The Sufis, therefore, hide
some things conformably with this precept.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Should anyone not know the science
which is known to the Sufis, and still do what the law plainly commands,
and be satisfied therewith, would his faith and Islam be less than that
of the Sufis?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> No. He would not be inferior
to the Sufis; his faith and Islam would be equal even to that of the prophets,
because Iman and Islam are a jewel which admits of no division or separation
into parts, and can neither be increased no diminished, just as the portion
of the sun enjoyed by a king and by a <i>faqir</i> is the same, or as the
limbs of the poor and the rich are equal in number: just as members of
the body of the king and the subject are precisely alike, so is the faith
of the Muslim the same in all and common to all neither greater nor less
in any case.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>Q -</i> Some men are prophets, saints,
pure ones, and other <i>Fasiqs</i> (who know God, but perform none of His
commands); what difference is there among them?</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman"><i>A -</i> The difference lies in their
<i>ma'rifah,</i>
or knowledge of spiritual things"; but in the matter of faith they are
all equal; just as, in the case of the ruler and the subject, their limbs
are all equal, while they differ in their dress, power, and office."</font>
<br>
<p><br>
<center>
<p><b><font face="Times New Roman"><font size=+2>IX. Sufi Poetry</font></font></b></center>
<p><br>
<br>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">"The very essence of Sufism is poetry,
and the Eastern Mystics are never tired of expatiating on the '<i>Ishq</i>
or "love to God," which is the one distinguishing features of Sufi mysticism.
The Masnawi, [of Rumi] which teaches in the sweetest strains that all nature
abounds with love divine, that causes even the lowest plant to seek the
sublime object of its desire; the works of the celebrated Jami, so full
of ecstatic rapture; the moral lessons of the eloquent Sa'di; and the lyric
odes of Hafiz, may be termed the Scriptures of the Sufi sect; and yet each
of these authors contains passages which are unfit for publication in an
English dress, and advocate morals at variance with what Christianity teaches
us to be the true reflection of God's Holy Will <i>(sic)</i>. Whilst propriety
demands the suppression of verses of the character alluded to, we give
a few odes as specimens of the highest order of Sufi poetry.</font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">Jalalu 'd-din ar-Rumi, the author of the
<i>Masnawi</i>
(A.H. 670), thus writes: - </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"I am the Gospel, the Psalter, the
Qur'an; </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>I am 'Uzza and Lat - (Arabic deities)
- Bell and the Dragon.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Into three and seventy sects is the
world divided,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Yet only one God: the faithful who
believe in Him am I.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Thou knowest what are fire, water,
air and earth;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Fire, water, air, and earth, all am
I</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Lies and truth, good, bad, hard and
soft.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Knowledge, solitude, virtue, faith.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The deepest ground of hell, the highest
torment of the flames,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The highest paradise,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The earth and what is therein, the
angels and the devils.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Spirit and man am I.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>What is the goal of speech, O tell
it Shams Tabrizi!</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The goal of sense? </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>This: - The world Soul am I."</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1># # #</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">And again: - </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"Are we fools? We are God's captivity.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Are we wise? We are His promenade.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Are we sleeping? We are drunk with
God.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Are we waking? Then we are His heralds.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Are we weeping? Then His clouds of
wrath.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Are we laughing? Flashes of His love."</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1># # #</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Every night God frees the host of spirits;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Frees them every night from fleshly
prison.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Then the soul is neither slave nor
master;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Nothing knows the bondsman of his
bondage:</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Nothing knows the lord of all his
lordship.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Gone from such a night, is eating
sorrow;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Gone, the thoughts that question good
or evil.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Then without distraction, or division.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>In this One the spirit sinks and slumbers."</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">The following is from the mystic poet Mahmud:
- </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"All sects but multiply the I and Thou;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>This I and Thou belong to partial
being.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>When I and Thou, and several being
vanish,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Then mosque and church shall find
Thee nevermore.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Our individual life is but a phantom,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Make clear thine eye, and see reality."</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">The following verses are by Faridu 'd-din
Shakrgunj (A.H. 662): - </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"Man, what thou are is hidden from
thyself;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Know'st not that morning, midday,
and the eve</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Are all within Thee? The ninth heaven
art Thou;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And from the spheres into the roar
of time</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Didst fall ere-while. Thou art the
brush that painted</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The hues of all the world - the light
of life</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>That ranged its glory in the nothingness."</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"Joy! Joy! I triumph now; no more
I know</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Myself as simply me. I burn with love.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The centre is within me, and its wonder </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Lies as a circle everywhere about
me.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Joy! Joy! No mortal thought can fathom
me.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>I am the merchant and the pearl at
once.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Lo! Time and space lie crouching at
my feet.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Joy! Joy! When I would revel in a
rapture.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>I plunge into myself, and all things
know."</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">Mr. Lane, in his <i>Modern Egyptians,</i>
gives a translation of a Sufi poem recited by an Egyptian Darwesh: </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"With my love my heart is troubled:
and mine eyelid hind'reth sleep;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>My vitals are dissever'd; while with
streaming tears I weep.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>My union seems far distant; will my
love e'er meet mine eye?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Alas! Did not estrangement draw my
tears, I would not sigh</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>By dreary night I'm wasted; absence
makes my hope expire</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>My tears, like pearls, are dropping,
and my heart is wrapt in fire.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Whose is like my condition? Scarcely
know I remedy.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Alas! Did not estrangement draw my
tears, I would not sigh.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>O turtle-dove! Acquaint me wherefor
thus dost thou lament?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Art thou so stung by absence? Of thy
wings depriv'd and pent?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>He saith, 'Our griefs are equal: worn
away with love. I lie.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Alas! Did not estrangement draw my
tears, I would not sigh.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>O First, and sole Eternal! Show thy
favour yet to me</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Thy slave, Ahmad El-Bekree, hath no
Lord excepting Thee.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>By Ta-ha, the Great Prophet! Do thou
not his wish deny.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Alas! Did not estrangement draw my
tears, I would not sigh."</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">Dr. Tholuck quotes this verse from a Darwesh
Breviary: - </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"Yesterday I beat the kettle-drum of
dominion,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>I pitched my tent on the highest throne;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>I drank, crowned by the Beloved, </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The wine of unity from the cup of
the Almighty."</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">One of the most characteristic Sufi poems
is the Persian poem by the poet Jami, entitled <i>Salaman and Absal</i>.
The whole narrative is supposed to represent the joys <i>Love Divine</i>
as compared with the defunct fascinations of a <i>Life of Sense</i>. The
story that of a certain King of Ionia, who had a son named Salaman, who
in his infancy was nursed by a young maiden named Absal, who, as he grew
up, fell desperately in love with the youth, and in time ensnared him.
Salaman and Absal rejoiced together in a life of sense for a full year,
and thought their pleasures would never end. A certain sage is then sent
by the king to reason with the erring couple. Salaman confesses that the
sage is right, but pleads the weakness of his own will. Salaman leaves
his native land in company with Absal, and they find themselves on an island
of wonderful beauty. Salaman, unsatisfied with himself and his love, returns
once more to his native country, where he and Absal resolve to destroy
themselves. They go to a desert and kindle a pile, and both walk into the
fire. Absal is consumed, but Salaman is preserved in the fire, and lives
to lament the fate of his beloved one. In course of time he is introduced
by the sage to a celestial beauty called Zuhrah, with whom he becomes completely
enamoured, and Absal is forgotten.</font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>" . . . Celestial beauty seen, </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>He left the earthly; and once come
to know</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>External love, he let the mortal go."</font></font>
<p><font face="Times New Roman">In the epilogue to the poem, the author
explains the mystic meaning of the whole story in the following language:
- </font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>"Under the outward form of any story</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>An inner meaning lies - this story
now</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Completed, do thou of its mystery</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>(Whereto the wise hath found himself
a way)</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Have thy desire - no tale of I and
Thou,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Though I and Thou be its interpreters.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>What signifies the King? And what
the Sage?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And what Salaman not of woman born?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And what Absal who drew him to desire?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And what the Kingdom that awaited
him.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>When he had drawn his garment from
her hand?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>What means that Fiery Pile? And what
the Sea?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And what that heavenly Zuhrah who
at last</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Clear'd Absal from the mirror of his
soul?</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Learn part by part the mystery from
me;</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>All ear from head to foot and understanding
be.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The incomparable Creator, when this
world</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>He did create, created first of all</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The <i>first intelligence</i> - first
of a chain</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of ten intelligences, of which the
last</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Sole Agent is this our Universe,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Active intelligence so call'd, the
one Distributor of evil and of good,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of joy and sorrow. Himself apart from
matter,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>In essence and in energy - His treasure</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Subject to no such talisman - He yet</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Hath fashion'd all that is - material
form,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And spiritual sprung from Him - by
Him</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Directed all, and in His bounty drown'd</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Therefore is He that Firman-issuing
King</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>To whom the world was subject. But
because</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>What he distributes to the Universe</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Himself from still higher power received,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The wise, and all who comprehend aright,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Will recognise that higher in the
Sage.</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>His the Prime Spirit that, spontaneously</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Projected by the tenth intelligence,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Was from no womb of matter reproduced</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>A special essence called the Seal
- a child</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Fresh sprung from heaven in raiment
undefiled</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of sensual taint, and therefore call'd
Salaman.</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And who Absal? - The lust-adoring body,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Slave to the blood and sense - through
whom the Soul, </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Although the body's very life it be,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Does yet imbibe the knowledge and
desire</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of things of sense; and these united
thus</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>By such a tie God only can unloose,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Body and soul are lovers each of other.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>What is the Sea on which they sail'd?
- the Sea</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of animal desire - the sensual abyss,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Under whose waters lie a world of
being</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Swept far from God in that submersion.</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And wherefore was Absal in that Isle</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Deceived in her delight, and that
Salaman </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Fell short of his desire? - that was
to show</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>How passion tires, and how with time
begins</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>The folding of the carpet of desire.</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And what the turning of Salaman's heart</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Back to the King, and looking to the
throne</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of pomp and glory? What but the return</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of the lost soul to its true parentage,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And back from carnal error looking
up</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Repentant to its intellectual throne.</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>What is the Fire? Ascetic discipline,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>That burns away the animal alloy,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Till all the dross of matter be consumed</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And the essential Soul, its raiment
clean</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Of mortal taint, be left. But forasmuch</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>As, any life-long habit so consumed,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>May well recur a pang for what is
lost, </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>A soothing phantom of the past, but
still</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Told of a better Venus, till his soul</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>She fill'd, and blotted out his mortal
love.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>For what is Zuhrah? - That divine
perfection,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Wherewith the soul inspir'd and all
array'd</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Its intellectual light is royal blest,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And mounts the throne, and wears the
crown, and reigns</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Lord of the empire of humanity.</font></font>
<p><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>This is the meaning of this mystery, </font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Which to know wholly ponder in the
heart,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Till all its ancient secret be enlarged.</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>Enough - the written summary I close,</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>And set my seal:</font></font>
<br><font face="Arial"><font size=-1>THE TRUTH GOD ONLY KNOWS."</font></font></td>
</tr>
</table>
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